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The 11th century is the starting point for researching what is now comfortably termed French literature, if one has decided to conduct a study of it. It is from this or the following century that most of the texts one is going to discover will refer to. French Translation of these manuscripts has revealed that even then, the language was not pure French that we know today. However, it will be right to claim that as early as the 12th century French, as a set of grammatical and lexical rules, had become a language of frequent and variable use. For many centuries previous to this, literature had been composed in France, or by natives of that country, using the term France in its full modern acceptation; but until the 9th century, if not later, the written language of France, so far as we know, was Latin; and despite the practice of not a few literary historians, it does not seem reasonable to notice Latin writings in a history of French literature. What makes such an interpretation so attractive is the time when contemporary French bore the name Lingua Romana Rustica but in the subsequent years it shaped up so that it could become an independent language. The language most often used in court trials was called Lingua Romana and came into existence in the 7th century, but it is wrong to mistake it for Latin or Teutonic. Not until recently have these documents been translated from Latin to French by a Legal Translation Service service. Most scholars suggest that the oldest written documents in French comprise a small number of texts of various nature, dating as far back as the centuries from the 9th to the 11th. The oldest gives us the oaths interchanged at Strassburg in 842 between Charles the Bald and Louis the German.

Probably the one nation that did not succeed in adjusting to the new literary and cultural norms introduced by Italy and France throughout Europe were the Germans. The same cannot be said about their neighbors – the Scandinavians and the Latin-influenced English. The foreign intervention in the German literature has always motivated the Germans’ struggle against its damaging effects. Nonetheless, the Scandinavian literature of the 19th century and the English literary tradition of the 18th century were significantly thought to have a healing effect on it. One of the most fruitful periods in the history of German literature is probably the Reformation. We cannot but refer to Germany’s most prominent scholar of the time – Martin Luther. Both a priest and theology professor, his writings had a major impact both on the church and on the German culture – notably he served as a model for Protestants priests to have the right to marry. Luther’s Bible had unique importance not merely for the religious and intellectual welfare of the German people, but also for their literature. Luther, well aware that his German Translation of the Bible must be the keystone to his work, gave himself endless pains to produce a thoroughly German work – German both in language and in spirit. The Bible was translated into a German variant spoken at the Saxon chancellery and it was supposed to widely understood by the whole German nation. Following the publication of the translation of the Bible the Saxon chancery developed further and shaped up the contemporary German language.